UNIT-II WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES AND EDUCATION

UNIT-II WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES AND EDUCATION

BELIEFS OF TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHY:

1)  Education  is  reasonably  authoritarian  and  hierarchical.   2)  The  curriculum  is

subject-centered. 3) Emphasis is on content in the process. 4) Knowledge and accuracy are essential. 5) Rationality and the consideration of factual evidence should predominate 6) Recognition of right and wrong. 7) There should be a product 8) The product, or knowledge of content, should be objectively tested or measured. 9) Choice between different curricula and/or different types of school is essential to maximize individual strengths.

BELIEFS OF PROGRESSIVE PHILOSOPHY:

1) Education is egalitarian. 2) It is child-centered and relevant, 3) Emphasis is on
skills. 4) Experience, experiment and understanding are more important. 5) Creativity and
feelings are more important than facts.  6) Criteria provide a framework for subjective
assessment or tasks based on skills. 7) Co-operation gets the priority 8) Entitlement for all
replaces choice and differentiation; equal opportunities can be used to construct equality of
result. The traditionalists believe that the purpose of education is to pass on a body of
knowledge (both factual and cultural) to future generations; the progressive believe that
the purpose of education is to change attitudes and values, to construct a politically correct
secular and socialist society. The progressives give particular attention to English, History
and Research, because these subjects have enormous cultural importance.

IDEALISM

Idealism as a philosophy had its greatest impact during the nineteenth century. Its influence in today’s world is less important than it has been in the past..Idealism is the conclusion  that  the  universe  is  expression  of  intelligence  and  will,  that  the  enduring substance of the world is the nature of the mind, that the material is explained by the mental. Idealism as a philosophy stands in contrast with all those systems of thought that center in nature (naturalism) or in man (humanism)." According to idealism "to be" means to be experienced by a person. Idealism holds that the order of the world is due to the manifestation in space and time of an eternal and spiritual reality. As to knowledge, idealism holds that knowledge is man thinking the thoughts and purposes of this eternal and spiritual reality as they are embodied in our world of fact. As to ethics, idealism holds that the goodness of man's individual and social life is the conformity of the human will with the moral administration of the universe.

1. The mind is the principle of explanation and knowledge of any-thing, even of the mind itself, is a product of the mind.

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2. The mind is of a different nature than matter. It is composed of a different substance.

3. There can be no object without a subject thinking about it

Definition and meaning of Idealism

The main tenant of idealism is that ideas and knowledge are the truest reality. Many things in the world change, but ideas and knowledge are enduring. Idealism was often referred to as “idea-ism”. Idealists believe that ideas can change lives. The most important part of a person is the mind. It is to be nourished and developed.

Pronunciation: [I-'dee-ê-liz-êm]Definition: (1)   (From  "idea")  The  Platonic  theory  that

ultimate reality lies in a realm beyond the real world, that the real world is a by-product of mental or supernatural states; art that rejects realism for the world of imagination.  (2) (From  "ideal")  the  practice  of  living  according  to  a  set  of  ideals;  overly  optimistic hopefulness.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF IDEALISM.

I. Idealists believe that spiritual world is real and the ultimate truth whereas the material world is transitory and mortal.

II. They hold that the order of the world is due to the manifestation in space and time of an eternal and spiritual reality.

III. To them, ideas are the ultimate reality. They are eternal and unchanging.

IV. To idealists man is more important than material nature. It is because man can think and experience about material objects.

V. The spiritual or cultural environment is an environment of man's own making. It is a product of man's creative activity.

VI. Idealism believes in spiritual values. They are Truth, Beauty and Goodness. The realization of these values is the realization of God.

VII. Idealists give full support to the principle of unity in diversity.

VIII. To them God is the Supreme Force which is omnipotent and omnipresent.

IX. Idealists insist upon the fullest development of the personality of an individual. Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest work of God.

IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

The following are the aims of education according to the philosophy of Idealism:

Self Realization

Idealism considers self-realization as an important aim of education. Self-realization involves full knowledge of the self. The aim of education is to enable man to become his truest self. Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest work of God every individual life has got the possibility of becoming a perfect pattern after his own self. According to Ross, "The aim of education is the exaltation of personality or self-realization, the making actual or real the highest Potentialities of the self."

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Spiritual Development

To idealism the aim of education is to develop the child mentally, morally and
spiritually, Teacher should so organize education as to develop the child spiritually.
            To them truth, beauty and goodness should be encouraged more and more. The
more an individual realizes these ideals the more spiritually enlightened he will be.

Character Formation

To develop morality in man is an important aim of education. Man is essentially a
moral being. Idealism emphasizes character building and character formation. The process
of education must lead to the deepest spiritual insight to the highest moral and spiritual
conduct.

Preparation for Holy Life

To Froebel "The object of education is the realization of a faithful, pure and holy life."  Idealists  uphold  that  education  should  create  such  conditions  and  provide  an environment which is conducive to the development of spiritual values in a child. Good ideals will lead a child towards self-realization and prepare him for a holy life.

Preservation and Enrichment of Cultural Heritage

To idealists the aim of education is to acquaint the child with the cultural heritage so
that he conserves, promotes and transmits it to the next generation. Our cultural heritage is
of great value and worth. This cultural treasure belongs to the whole humanity and it is the
purpose of education to preserve, develop and transmit it in all comers of the world.

Intellectual and Physical Development

The aim of education is to ensure the intellectual development and rationality of the child so that he may develop his innate and creative powers and thereby achieve his goal and seek adjustment with the environment. The aim of education is to ensure physical development of the child also. Sound mind lives in a sound body. Physically developed students can easily achieve their goals of life.

To develop the Feeling of Integrity

Idealists give full support to the principle of unity in diversity. They believe that implicit in all the diversities is an essential unity. This implicit unifying factor is of spiritual nature. The underlying divine force is God which is omnipotent and omnipresent.

On the basis of caste, sex, colour and religion there are differences in the society, but God is present in all humanity. Feeling of unity is developed among the students through education.

Development of Moral Values

The aim of education is to develop morality in students. Education should develop the will power of the child so that he may be able to follow the good and avoid evil. This power can be developed by the correct appreciation of truth, goodness and beauty which are the highest moral values.

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Univerzalisation of Education

Idealism is in favour of univerzalisation is of education so that an ideal society may be established. Every child must have an access to education. In idealistic society, no exception should be made in the education of children. It should be universal because all human beings are equally the children of God.

CRITICISMS OF IDEALISM

Idealism has been influential in education for a considerable amount of time. It is
considered  a  conservative  philosophy  because  of  its  emphasis  in  preserving  cultural
traditions. The strengths of idealism include encouraging thinking and cognition, promoting
cultural  learning,  and  providing  for  character  development  of  students.  Teachers  are
considered  valuable  parts  of  the  educational  process  who  should  strive  to  provide  a
comprehensive, systematic, and holistic approach to learning that stresses self realization.
Science today has challenged idealism and brought about challenges to idealistic principles.
Science is based on hypothesis and tentativeness, but idealism promotes a finished and
absolute universe waiting to be discovered. Idealism has often been linked with traditional
religion. The weakening of religion has led to the weakening of idealism as a philosophy.
Through Plato’s ruler kings, and Augustine’s emphasis on the monastic life, it has been said
that idealism leads to intellectual elitism. In the past, education was considered important
for the upper classes of society, marking education as a luxury. Vocational and technical
studies  were  considered  well  enough  for  the  general  public.  Idealistic  education  was
considered bookish and lacking relevance. It is argued that the character development
aspect of the philosophy involved conformity and subservience on the part of the learner.
This type of character development was considered to stifle creativity and self direction,
making students gullible and ready to accept ideas without serious examination.

NATURALISM

Naturalism as a philosophy of education was developed in the 18th century. It is
based on the assumption that nature represents the wholeness of reality. Nature, itself, is a
total system that contains and explains all existence including human beings and human
nature. According to naturalists the material and the physical world is governed by certain
laws, and man, who is the creator of the material world, must submit to it. It denies the
existence  of  anything  beyond  nature,  behind  nature  and  other  than  nature  such  as
supernaturalism. In terms of epistemology or theory of knowledge, naturalists highlight the
value of scientific knowledge. Francis Bacon emphasizes the inductive method for acquiring
the scientific knowledge through specific observation, accumulation and generalisation. He
also lays emphasis on the empirical and experimental knowledge. Naturalists also lay stress
on sensory training as senses are the gateways to learning. To naturalists, values arise from
the human beings' interaction with the environment. Instincts drives and impulses need to

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be expressed rather than repressed. According to them, there is no absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life are created by the human needs. The great names associated with naturalism are many but the important ones are those of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Herbert Spencer and Rabindra Nath Tagore.

The meaning of the name naturalism is strongly implied in the word itself. It is the
view  point  which  regards  the  world  of  nature  as  the  all  in  all  of  reality  Naturalism,
commonly known as Materialism is a philosophical paradigm whereby everything can be
explained in terms of natural causes. Physical matter is the only reality -- everything can be
explained in terms of matter and physical phenomena. Naturalism, by definition, excludes
any Supernatural Agent or activity. Thus, naturalism is atheism. Naturalism's exclusion of
God necessitates moral relativism. Philosophers agree, without God there is no universe,
Naturalism is the doctrine which separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter
and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme’. According to this law, natures supreme, all
answers should be sought in nature and it alone can solve all the philosophical problems.
Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training that are not
dependent on schools and books but on manipulation of the actual life of educand.

Naturalism  is  an  artistic  movement  advocating  realistic  description:  in  art  or literature, a movement or school advocating factual or realistic description of life, including its less pleasant aspects. In literature, Naturalism has strong belief in religious truth from nature: a belief that all religious truth is derived from nature and natural causes, and not from revelation. The doctrine rejecting spiritual explanations of world: a system of thought that rejects all spiritual and supernatural explanations of the world and holds that science is the sole basis of what can be known.

Naturalism as a philosophy of education has exercised a great influence on the
theory and practice of education. It decries all external restraint and it necessary formalities.
The  naturalistic  system  of  education  there  is  no  place  for  classrooms,  text-books,
timetables, Curriculum, formal lessons or examinations. The teacher has to play the role of
acquainting children with their natural environment; External discipline is altogether out of
place. The only discipline is the discipline of natural consequences. Naturalism believes that
formal education is the invention of society which is artificial. Good education can be
possible only through direct contact with nature. Naturalism in education has the following
common themes:

1. Look to nature and to human nature, as part of the natural order, for the purposes of education.

2. The key to understanding nature is through the senses. Sensation is the basis of our knowledge of reality.

3. Because nature's processes are slow, gradual and evolutionary, our education' also should be steady.

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Naturalism and Organization of Education

According to naturalists, the existence of school is a natural necessity. All of us know that man IS the most dependent creature of God as compared to other animals because of the long period of infancy of the child and its consequent dependence on adults. The offspring of other animals have negligible periods of infancy whereas the human offspring requires a few years even to perform simple functions of day-to-day living. Because of this important dimension of the dependency nature of man, education becomes an urgent necessity  and  so  do  educational  institutions  like  the  school.  Naturalism  attaches  less importance to the existence of formal school and text-hooks because it hinders the natural development of children. For Rousseau "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of author of nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man". According to him nature is the only pure, clean and ennobling influence.

Human society is thoroughly corrupt. Therefore man should be freed from the
bondage of society; and he should be enabled to live in the "state of nature". Human nature
is essentially good and it must be given fullest opportunities for free development in a free
atmosphere. Gandhi's philosophy of education is also naturalistic in setting as he believes in
the essential goodness of child's nature. According to him, children should be educated in
an atmosphere of freedom - freedom from superimposed restriction and interferences. His
main emphasis is on activity or learning by doing and shows aversion to artificiality and
pedantry. Being a naturalist, he attempts to liberate education from the four walls of
classroom and wishes it to be given in a wider sphere of the natural surroundings of the
child. The school to the naturalist is in no way different from the home; Frobel called the
school as kindergarten or garden for children whereas Montessori calls it Case-de-Bambini
or home for the children. According to Prestalozzi, there should be no difference between
the school and home.

Tagore also believes that education given in natural surroundings develops intimacy
with the world. He puts more faith on the individual rather than institutions. Nature, to him,
is the focus where the interest and aspirations of human beings meet. It is therefore
essential not only to know nature, but to live in nature. "School", according to him, is like a
large home in which the children and teachers with their family live together, sharing a
common life of high aspirations, planned living and noble effort in contact with nature on
the one hand, and with the spirit of joy on the other. Naturalism also believes in the
principle of individual differences which means that every child has a unique capacity to
acquire knowledge and also the pace of learning is unique. So the school should have
respect for personal diversity and it should cater to the varied and different interests of the
child. Naturalists advocate such methods of teaching which offer the child an opportunity
for self education, self-expression, creative activity and integrated growth in an atmosphere
of unrestrained freedom.

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NATURALISM AND CURRICULUM

Naturalists emphasize the study of sciences dealing with nature-Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Zoology, Botany etc. They also give importance to the study of language and Mathematics.

Naturalism gives a very insignificant place to spiritualism in the curriculum. However, naturalists like Rabindra Nath Tagore do emphasize spiritual values together with the study of literature and sciences so as to facilitate harmonious development of the child. At the same time, teaching of religion according to Tagore can never be imparted in the form of lessons, but in actual practice of having. By religion he does not mean, the religion of man or any narrow sectarianism. According to him, truth is the basis of all religions.

Spencer, an extreme naturalist thinks that human nature is strictly individualistic and self-preservation is the first law of life. He wants that all activities should be classified in order of their importance and priority should be given to the activities which minister selfpreservation.

Thus in the curriculum he assigns a special place to "Laws of life and principles of
physiology".  He  gives  a  very  high  place  to science, which  he  considers  best  both  for
intellectual and moral discipline. According to him all studies should be correlated with
science. But T.H. Huxley does not agree with Spencer for giving undue importance to
science. He wants aesthetic culture to be imparted to children as a subject of priority.

Rousseau advocates negative education - which is typical of naturalistic philosophy -
the 40 subordination of the child to natural order and his freedom from the social order. He defines negative education as one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge before giving them this knowledge directly. The child should be left free to develop his body and senses. He attaches great importance to sense training as he believes Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. For naturalists, genuine education is based on the Laws  of  readiness  and  needs  of  the  human  being.  According  to  them  child's  nature, interests, and needs provide the basis of curriculum.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

According to naturalists the teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child's
development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and will power or a moulder of
character. In the words of Ross "teacher in a naturalistic set up is only a setter of the stage,
a supplier of materials and opportunities, a provider of an ideal environment, a creator of
conditions under which natural development takes place. Teacher is only a non-interfering
observer".

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For Rousseau, the teacher, fist of all, is a person who is completely in tune with
nature. He has a profound faith in the original goodness of human nature. He believes that
human beings have their own time-table for learning. So Rousseau in his didactic novel
"Emile" organized education according to Emile's (a boy) stages of development. For each
stage of development, the child, shows certain signs that he is ready to learn what are
appropriate to that stage. Appreciating the educative role of the natural environment as an
educative force the teacher does not interfere with nature, but rather cooperates with the
ebb and flow of natural Forces. Significantly, the teacher who is aware of human nature and
its stages of growth and development, does not force Emile to learn but rather encourages
learning,  by  stimulating  him  to  explore  and  to  grow  by  his  interactions  with  the
environment.

Like Rousseau, Tagore is also an individualist and a naturalist. He says that everyone
is  unique  and  every  individual is  different  from  another.  He  believes that the  natural
teachers i.e. the trees, the dawn, evening, the moonlight etc. -nourish the child's nature
spontaneously. Nature inspires the human being differently at different stages of human
development. He gives an important place to the teacher because according to him a real
teacher humanizes the learning process and activates the mind instead of stuffing it. It is the
teacher who kindles independent thinking, imagination and judgment. Rousseau opines that
teacher should not be in a hurry to make the child learn. Instead he should be patient,
permissive  and  non-intrusive.  Demonstrating  great  patience,  the  teacher  cannot  allow
himself to tell the student what the truth is but rather must stand back and encourage the
learner's own self discovery. According to him the teacher is an invisible guide to learning.
While ever-present, he is never a taskmaster. Naturalists are of the view that teacher should
not be one who stresses books, recitations and massing information in literary form, "rather
he should give emphasis on activity, exploration, and learning by doing".

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism is popularly regarded as an indigenous American philosophy. But its
roots can be traced to ancient Greek philosophy. The term 'Pragmatism' is derived from the
Greek work 'Pragma' which means work Heraclitus and Sophist of ancient Greece are
considered to be pragmatic in their approach to life. There were other contemporaries such
as Protagoras and Gorgias. The background of pragmatism is associated with the works of
Francis Bacon, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Charles Darwin. But the philosophical
elements that give pragmatism a consistency and system as a philosophy in its own right are
primarily  the  contributions  of  Charles  Sanders  Pierce,  William  James  and  John  Dewey
though  they  differ  considerably  in  their  methods  and  conclusions.  Pierce's  view  of
pragmatism  is  oriented  towards  physics  and  mathematics  and  Dewey's  towards  social

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science  and  biology.  James's  philosophy,  and  the  other  hand,  are  personal  and psychological, and are motivated by religious considerations.

Pragmatists reject metaphysics as a legitimate area of philosophical inquiry. Reality, they opine, is determined by an individual's sense experience. Man can know nothing beyond his experience. So questions relating to the ultimate nature of man and the universe simply  cannot  be  answered  because  these  problems  transcend  one's  experience.  For example, there is no way for any living being to determine whether there is life after death, because one cannot experience life after death while living. Any conclusion we make about life after death in merely conjecture or guess. They believe that reality is in constant flux. There is nothing in the world which is static, permanent or eternal.

According  to  pragmatism,  knowledge  based  on  experience  is  me,  genuine  and
worthy of acquisition. Since the phenomena are constantly changing, so knowledge and
truth must change accordingly.  The knowledge which is  helpful in solving present-day
problems is most preferred. They emphasize functional knowledge and understanding.

Pragmatism does not believe in standard, permanent and eternal values. According
to this philosophy, values derive from the human condition. Because man is a part of the
society, so the consequences of his actions are either good or bad according to their results.
If the consequences are worthwhile, then the value of the action is proven to be good. Thus
Values in ethics and aesthetics depend upon the relative circumstances of the situation as it
arises. Ultimate values cannot exist. Pragmatism, being a practical and utilitarian school of
philosophy, has influenced education to the maximum extent. It considers activity as the
basis of all teaching and prefers self-activity in the context of co-operative activity. It creates
optimistic men, who are the architects of their own fate by the process of their efforts. They
want that education should be according to one's aptitudes and abilities. Individual must be
respected and education should be planned to cater to his inclinations and capacities. But
individual development must take place in social context. The aim of education, according
to pragmatism, is to teach one how to think so that one can adjust to an ever changing
society.

In order to produce creative, resourceful and adaptable children we should have
conditions in the school which are conducive to the creation of these qualities of mind. The
children should  not  be  asked  to work  according  to predetermined  goals.  They  should
determine their goals according to their needs and interests and in conformity with the
demands  of  the  activities  that  they  have  undertaken.  For  them  the  teaching-learning
process is a social process where the sharing of experiences between the teacher and
taught takes place.

PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM

According to pragmatists the main focus of education is not social heritage of the
past, but the good life in the present and in the future. The standard of social good is

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constantly changing, so it should be tested and verified through changing experience. Life does not stand still and there is a constant need for improvement. John Dewey, however, is of the view that acquaintance with the past experience is very important for effective handling of the present as well as the future.

Pragmatists are of the opinion that the curriculum at the school should reflect the
society. They have rejected the traditional approach to subject matter curriculum which is
associated with formal schooling, where knowledge is separated from child's own interests,
needs and experiences and is fragmented or compartmentalized. They emphasize the needs
and interests of the children. This does not mean letting children do anything they want.
Interests and needs do not necessarily mean the dictates of whim. Dewey opines that all
learning should be particular and contextual to a given time, place and circumstances. For
example, history is traditionally taught to the student without considering its relevance to
the everyday experience. So what is the use of studying history? Whatever may be the
subject matter it should liberate and enrich personal life by furnishing context, background
and outlook?

Dewey  in  his  book  "Democracy  and  Education"  recommended  three  levels  of curricular organization: (1) making and doing; (2) history and geography; and (3) organized sciences.

At the first curricular level, making and doing, should engage students in activities and projects based on their experiences. ‘This idea is similar to that of Mahatma Gandhi who is considered as an idealist, a naturalist as well as a pragmatist. He believes in the principle of learning by doing. There is lot of similarity between the craft-centered activities advocated by him add the project method of Dewey.

Though Rabindra Nath Tagore is a naturalist, his views regarding curriculum are pragmatic in nature. To him curriculum is not a number of subjects to be learnt but relevant activities to be undertaken. In the second level curriculum, History and Geography, which Dewey  regards  as  two  great  educational  resources,  help  in  enlarging  the  scope  and significance of the child's temporal and spatial experience from the immediate home and school environments to that of the larger community and the world.

Dewey's third stage of curriculum is that of the organized subjects, the various sciences, consisting of bodies of tested knowledge. Pragmatists believe in a broad and diversified curriculum.  They  endorse  a  more  general education  as  opposed  to narrow specialization.

Pragmatic curriculum is composed of both process and content. When we consider what a child learns as fixed and readymade, attention is directed too much upon outcome and too little upon process. Pragmatists focus some attention on process, because ends should not be divorced from means. So they assert that the means used to accomplish something dictate what the actual ends and outcomes really are.

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ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Pragmatism neither treats the teacher merely a spectator as naturalist does nor
regards him as indispensable as idealism does. According to pragmatism, the teacher is not
a dictator or task master but a leader of group activities. The chief function of a pragmatic
teacher is  to suggest  problems  to his  pupils  and  to stimulate  them  to find  solutions.
Teachers ought not to try and pour information and knowledge into the pupil, because what
pupil learns depends upon his own personal needs, interests, and problems. Dewey views
the teacher as a resource person who guides rather than directs learning. The teacher's role
is primarily that of guiding learners who need advice or assistance. Direction comes from
the requirements of solving the particular problem. Educational aims belong to the learner
rather than the teacher.

Since pragmatists are concerned with teaching children how to solve problems, they should select real life situations which encourage the problem-solving ability among the children.

For a problem to be solved correctly, the learner with the help of teacher's guidance
needs to establish a correct procedural sequence to solve a particular problem.
            A pragmatist teacher needs to be patient, friendly, enthusiastic and cooperative.
Although coercion might force the students to achieve immediate results, it is likely to limit
flexibility needed  for the  future problem-solving. The teacher's control of the  learning
situation is ideally indirect rather than direct. Direct control, coercion or external discipline
generally  fails  to  enlarge  the  learners’  internal  disposition  and  does  not  in  any  way
contribute to the learner to become a self corrected person. As a resource person, the
pragmatic teacher needs to be non-interfering or what Dewey refers to as 'permissive' and
allow students to make errors and to experience the consequences of their actions. In this
way, he or she helps the students to become self-directed persons.

For Dewey, permissiveness does not mean that children's whims should dictate the curriculum.  But  rather,  the  teacher  as  a  mature  person  should  exercise  professional judgment and expertise so that the consequences of action do not become dangerous to the students themselves or to their classmates.

The pragmatic teacher should constantly be aware of the motivation factor. Dewey opined that children are naturally motivated and the teacher should capture and use the motivation that is already there. He also pointed out that the teacher should pay respect to the principle of individual differences and treats them accordingly. A pragmatic teacher wants his pupils’ Philosophical .Education to think and act for themselves, to do rather than to know and to originate rather than repeat. The pragmatic teacher is a pragmatist first and a teacher afterwards.

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PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE

Pragmatism does not believe in the traditional maxim "work while you work and play
while you play". Rather it advocates a discipline that can be maintained through play as
work. According to the pragmatists, it is the mental attitude which converts a work into play
and play into work. For example, a foot ball game becomes a work if it is played due to some
external pressure  and  difficult  algebraic  sum  becomes  play  if  it  is  solved  out  of zeal.
Pragmatism does not believe in external discipline enforced by the superior authority of the
teacher. It supplements discipline with greater freedom of activity. They feel that discipline
which is based on the principles of child's activities and need is beneficial. They want that
the interest of the child should be aroused, sustained and satisfied. The pragmatists believe
that the learner's freedom is not anarchy or allowing the child to do anything without
considering the consequences. Rather they believe in the purposeful co-operative activities
carried on in a free and happy environment Control comes from the cooperative context of
shared activity, which involves working with the fellow mates. In pragmatism there is no
place for rewards and punishments as every activity is to be pursued in a social setting
where teacher should come down to the level of children, mix with them, and share their
interests, and participate in their activities.

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REALISM IN EDUCATON

BACKGROUND AND MEANING OF REALISM:

Just as Naturalism comes on the Educational scene as a protest against systems of
education that have become artificial. Realism appears to be a reaction against curricula
consisting of studies that have become bookish, sophisticated and an abstruse. As we have a
slogan in Naturalism- ‘Back to Nature ‘- in Realism we have a slogan-‘Things rather than
words '.

Idealism deals with  ‘mind and self,' Naturalism emphasizes  ‘Matter and Physical world', and pragmatism  ‘Refuses to speculate and transcend beyond experience  ‘. And according to Realism the external world of objects is not imaginary. It really exists, "Our experience is not independent but determines reaction to the external objects. Experiences are influenced by the external world which has real existence." It is a new outlook and this new outlook is termed as Realism.

The realistic movement in education started from the 16th century. The 16th and
17th centuries witnessed great inventions and epochal discoveries which greatly increased
the store of human knowledge. They extended the horizon of human knowledge. The rise of
scientific  inquiry  opened  new  vistas  before  human  mind. (Bacon’s  formulation  and

statement of the new scientific method.) All these lead to a new spirit of inquiry into the
realities of nature. Man started to believe more in himself. He thought that he would
conquer the entire world with his supreme gift of rationality. The interest in language and
literature began to wane and people became more and more interested in man and his
environment.

Consequently, there arose a demand of/for a new type of education in which truth rather than beauty, realities of life of the day rather than the beauties of the old days were aims of education as there was a great premium on Man and human endeavour combined with science and common sense. This new conception was marked by an awakened interest in the natural phenomena and social institutions. This new outlook came to be termed as ‘Realism in Education '. “The realist enters his emphatic protest against a cleavage between the work of the school and the life of the world outside it.” (Rose, James S.: Ground work of Educational Theory, p. 214 ).

"Education is that which makes a man happy by getting acquaintance with real circumstances of life; create capacity for struggling with adverse situation in life. Realistic education is connected with the needs of life. “(Dr. Chaube, S.P. and Akilesh: philosophical and Sociological; Foundation of Education, P. 171).

FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATES AND MAIN TENETS:

1) External world is a solid Reality, whether known or unknown to man. Reality is
already in existence and in the invention of man. It exists independently of being known to

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perceive by, or related to mind. Man can only comprehend it, through senses. One should dip below the surface to know the reality.

2) Realism places great premium on Man and human endeavor, which it says, should
be combined with science and common-sense. It, however, asserts that ‘Man is finite' and
learning is necessary for a finite man, Education is the process by which he lifts himself up to
the external. “The Realists wish man to be a man of affairs, practical and always seeker of
deeper  and  deeper  truth  and  reality," (Taneja,  V.R.:  Socio-philosophical  Approach  to

Education, p. 241).

3)  The  realist  say  that     ‘Mind'  like  any  other  material  thing  has  mechanical

functioning. They discount its creating ability. "Just as any object of universe can be ‘true' or ‘false' similarly mind is also ‘true' or ‘false'. The development of mind is the part of the process of development of the world."  (Dr. Chaube, S.P. and Akilesh: Philosophical and Sociological foundation of Education, p.171)

‘Mind is what it studies'.  (Herbert). If this concept of the realists is accepted in education then we are forced to believe that children's mind are ‘mere cameras to register the reality of the universe. 'Philosophers say that mind has lot of scope for enrichment elevation and creativity.

4) Realism tries to build up a body of systematized knowledge, which is certain and
objective and agrees with the standpoint of physical sciences. It says that every reality can
be  proved  by  observation,  experience,  experiment  and  scientific  reasoning,  For  them,
experience is the touchstone of what is real. Whenever the simple and direct experience
can't determine the objective truth, the common sense puts its truth in scientific research.
In the present world of falling idols and falling ideals, the realists emphasize the role of
intelligence as great significant, as it formulates the concepts and develops general and
abstract ideas.

5) The realists of all brands aver that values are permanent and objective and say that although institutions and practices vary a great deal, the fundamental values of society should not change. The children should be taught those values, which have proved enduring throughout history. They should be taught the nature of ‘right' and ‘wrong' and what is objectively good and beautiful.

In brief, Realism believes in the usefulness of the world and the material existence in its field
of action. It believes that whatever is real is independent. Whatever is, is and exists. Its
presence  of  existence  does  not  depend  upon  the  knower. (Compare  with  idealist's

standpoint.) The individual doesn't make reality, he only discovers it. Main tenets:

i) Realism believes in the world which we see of perceive to be real. According to them it is wrong to say

ii) Realists believe in the present life.

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iii) They believe that the truth of life and aim of life are in the development from the present unsystematic life.

iv) Knowledge is real and can be assimilated by the human beings.

v) The realists distinguish between ‘appearance' and ‘reality'.

vi)  Realism  believes  that  there  is  an  objective  reality  apart  from  that  which  is presented to the consciousness.

The developing realism has adopted four points in education:

i) Humanistic Realism,

ii) Social Realism,

iii) Sense Realism, and
iv)  Neo-Realism.

i) Humanistic Realism in education

Humanistic realism is the reaction against the emphasize on form and style of the old classical literature. It has great regard for the ancient literature but it emphasizes the study of content and ideas in the ancient classical literature to understand one's present social life and environment. The aim is not to study the form and style of old literature to have mastery over it. The study of old literature is a means to understand the practical life. History, Geography, Kautilyas Arthashastra are the subjects and books should be studied for this purpose. Erasmus (1446-1537), Rabelais (1483-1553), John Milton (1608-1674) were the supporters of this faculty.

ii) Social Realism in education

Social Realism in education is the reaction against a type of education that produces scholars and professional men to the neglect of the man of affairs i.e. practice. Education should not produce men who are unfit in social life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the world. Michael de Montague (1533-
1592) was the main supporter of this faculty.

iii) The sense Realism in education

The sense realism in education emphasizes the training of the senses. Senses are the gateways of knowledge and learning takes place the operation of the senses. According to sense-realists nature is the treasure house of all knowledge and this knowledge can be obtained through the training of the senses.

The sense-realists emphasized the three things:

a) Application of inductive method formulated by Bacon in order to organize and simplify the instructional process.

b) To replace instruction in Latin by the instruction in Vernacular, and

c) To substitute new scientific and social studies in place of the studies in language and literature. Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Ratke (1571 to 1635) and Comenius (1592-1670) were the supporters of this faculty.

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iv). Neo-Realism in education

Neo-Realism is really a philosophical thought. It appears the methods and results of modern development in physics. They do not consider the scientific principles everlasting while they express the changeability in them. They support the education of art with the science and analytical system of education with the humananistic feelings. They consider living and nonliving all objective to be organs and the development of organs is the main objective and all round development of the objects is the main characteristic of education. Bertrand Russell and whitehead were the supporters of this faculty.

REALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION:

"Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to
them  aims  are  specific  to  each  individual  and  his  perspectives." (Seetharamu,  A.S.:

philosophies of Education, p.74). And each one has different perspectives. The aim of
education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical
life.

The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the world.

The science realists expressed that the education should be conducted on universal
basis. Greater stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of
science.

Neo-realists  aim  at  developing  all  round  development  of  the  objects  with  the development of their organs.

REALISM AND CURRICULA:

According to humanistic realism classical literature should be studied but not for
studying its form and style but for its content and ideas it contained. Milton, one of the
supporters of humanistic realism, has drafted a curriculum of education as follows:
1st year: Latin, grammar, arithmetic and geometry. Reading of simple Latin and Greek.
2nd year: Greek, agriculture, geography Natural philosophy, mathematics, engineering and
architecture.

In the next 5th year: chief writings of the ancients in prose and poetry on these subjects.

Remaining  years  -  Ethical  instruction,  Bible,  Hebrew,  Greek,  Roman  and  Saxon  Law, economics, politics, history, logic, rhetoric, poetry-all by reading select writhers.
            Social  realism  was  generally  recommended  for  the  people  of  the  upper  social
class/strata. It combined literary elements with ideals of chivalric education. Naturally it included the study of literature, heraldry (the science dealing with coats of arms and the persons who have right to wear them), genealogy (science of the development of plants and animals from earlier forms), riding, fencing, gymnastics, study of modern languages and the customs and institutions of neighboring countries.

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Sense-realism  attached  more  importance  to  the  study  of  natural  sciences  and contemporary social life. Study of languages is not as significant as the study of natural sciences and contemporary life.

Neo-realism gives stress on the subject physics and on humanistic feelings, physics
and psychology, sociology, economics, Ethics, Politics, history, Geography, agriculture varied
arts, languages and so on, are the main subjects to be studied according to the Neo-realists.

REALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING:

Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract.
      Ø  Things before rules and words.

Ø  Students to be taught to analyze rather than to construct.
      Ø  Vernacular to be the medium of instruction.
      Ø  The order of nature to be sought and followed.
 (The child can rule over the nature if the natural laws are followed.)
      Ø Repetition is necessary for retention.

ØIndividual's experience and spirit of inquiry is more important than authority.
         Ø No unintelligent cramming. More emphasis on questioning and understanding.
         Ø Methods of scientific thinking formulated by Sir Thomas Bacon.
 REALISM AND THE TEACHER :

1) A teacher should be such that he himself is educated and well versed with the customs of belief and rights and duties of people, and the trends of all ages and places.

2) He must have full mastery of the knowledge of present life.

3) He must guide the student towards the hard realities of life. He is neither pessimist, nor optimist.

4) He must be able to expose children to the problems of life and the world around. (To master one's own environing life natural, social through knowledge of the broader life of the ancients.)

A teacher should always keep in mind-

ü  Re-capitulation is necessary to make the knowledge permanent. ü  One subject should be taught at one time.

ü  No pressure or coercion be brought upon the child.

ü  The practice of cramming should be given up.

ü  The uniformity should be the basic principle in all things.

ü  Things should be introduced first and then the words.

ü  The entire knowledge should be gained after experience.

ü  The knowledge should be imparted on the basis of organs.

ü  Straight forward method should be adopted for teaching.

ü  There should be a co-relation between utility in daily life and education. ü  The child should be told the utility of whatever is taught.

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ü  The simple rules should be defined.

ü  All the subjects should be taught in proper order.

ü  Various organs of education should be taught in chronological order.
      ü  The topic should not be given up unless the boys understand it well.
      ü  To find out the interest of the child and to teach accordingly.
 REALISM AND THE CHILD:

1) "Realism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these cannot be overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regarding at the time of planning education.

2) " Child can reach near reality through learning by reason."

3) " Child has to be given as much freedom as possible."

4) "The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts,"

5) The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning."

(When only one response is repeated for one stimulus, it conditioned by that stimulus. Now wherever that situation comes, response will be the same; this is the fact.)

6) " The child is to be understood a creature of the real world there is no sense in making him a God. He has to be trained to become a man only." 1(Dr. Pandey Ram Shakal: An introduction to Major philosophies of Education, pp.160. 161).

REALISM AND SCHOOL ORGANIZATION:

1) School organization would be based on the real needs of society. It is not proper
that a college should be established due to political pressure at a place when it is not
needed.

2) The opening of science classes in every school is must. Only academic and literary subjects are not sufficient to fulfill the needs of the society.

3) Realism doesn't oppose co-education. Sex-drive is a real feeling. It is a natural happening so it cannot be rejected.

4) School is the mirror of the society. It is a miniature form of society and it presents

the real picture of the society

REALISM AND DISCIPLINE:

Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust himself to the world.

A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships  and  shortcomings  pervading  the  world.  Realism  has  vehemently  opposed withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.

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Thus, the realism has brought great effect in various fields of education. The aims,
the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the
discipline and the system of education all were given new blood. Realism in education
dragged the education from the old traditions, idealism and the high and low tides to the
real surface.

DARK SIDE OF REALISM:

1) " Realism recognizes the real existence of the material world. This recognition remains un objected to unless he says that only material world really exists. The question arises- Is there no power behind this material world? Does it have its own existence? What is the limit of the universe? The realist does give reply to these questions but these replies are not found to be satisfactory. The real existence of material world may be admitted but how can the existence come to an end in the world itself? "

2) " The realist claims to be objective. Objectivity in knowledge is nothing but the partnership of personal knowledge. Knowledge is always subjective." 1

3) " The realist recognizes the origin of knowledge from the datum achieved by senses and
asserts that only objects are main and it is through their contact that knowledge is acquired.
Then how does our illusion arise? How does knowledge become fallacious? Where does the
external object go in dream? The realist is unable to answer these questions satisfactorily. “

4) " The realist does not accept the existence of transcendental  (not based on experience or reason) being. How could be know the non-existence of that which does not exist? Has non-existence got no existence? Void ness and non-existence also are the parts of existence. Here the realist is dumb completely. "

5) “Realism admits real feelings and needs of life on the one hand, gives no place to imagination and sentiment, on the other. What a contradiction? Are imaginations, emotions and sentiments not real needs of human life? Is emotionless life not almost dead life? Can life be lead on the basis of facts only? "

6) " No inspiration to remove the defects of modern education can be achieved unless the impressiveness of pure and high thought is admitted and attitude is not confined to present facts only; because the realist is satisfied simply by the fulfillment of the needs of daily life and be does not care to make life sublime."

7) " Today the effect of realism has given rise to the wave of science. It is right, but there  should  be  no  indifference  towards  art  and  literature.  The  realist  supports  this negligence. "

8. " Realism enthuses disappointment in students and teachers. No progress can be
made by having faith in the facts of daily life and shattering faith in ideals. Life is but full of
miseries  and  struggles.  Sorrow  is  more  predominant  than  joy  in  the  world.  A  person
becomes disappointed by this feeling. That is why realists often appear to be skeptics

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(person who doubts the truth of a particular claim, theory etc.).Pessimists and Objectionists,
“(Dr. Pande, Ram Shakal: An Introduction to Major philosophies of Education, pp. 170-171.)

CONCLUSION:

Some of the points raised against realism may be true but some are raised under
ignorance of the study of realism in the true sense. Its contributions to modern education
should not be ignored. Today attention is being paid towards technical and vocational
education in all corners of the world. There are many Engineering Colleges in India, too.
Everywhere there is an arrangement of higher education of Medicine and Law. Increasing
interest towards empirical education is the application of the realistic attitude.

There are two main contributions of the education based upon the realism. Firstly, it tried to remove the gulf-between the life and education. Secondly, it propounded the principle  of  experimentation  and  observation  in  education.  It  was  realism  that  first introduced the thought that the organs are the door way to knowledge and the knowledge can be gained through the inductive method. The wordy education and bookish knowledge are not sufficient. Real education is that which brings about union between nature and society based upon one's own experience.